Distribution in Nature
Thorium and uranium are the most abundant actinides in nature with the respective mass concentrations of 1.6×10−3% and 4×10−4%. Uranium mostly occurs in the Earth's crust as a mixture of its oxides in the minerals uraninite, which is also called pitchblende because of its black color. There are several dozens of other uranium minerals such as carnotite (KUO2VO4·3H2O) and autunite (Ca(UO2)2(PO4)2·nH2O). The isotopic composition of natural uranium is 238U (relative abundance 99.2742%), 235U (0.7204%) and 234U (0.0054%); of these 238U has the largest half-life of 4.51×109 years. The worldwide production of uranium in 2009 amounted to 50,572 tonnes, of which 27.3% was mined in Kazakhstan. Other important uranium mining countries are Canada (20.1%), Australia (15.7%), Namibia (9.1%), Russia (7.0%), and Niger (6.4%).
| Ore | Location | Uranium content, % |
Mass ratio 239Pu/ore |
Ratio 239Pu/U (×1012) |
|---|---|---|---|---|
| Uraninite | Canada | 13.5 | 9.1×10−12 | 7.1 |
| Uraninite | Congo | 38 | 4.8×10−12 | 12 |
| Uraninite | Colorado, US | 50 | 3.8×10−12 | 7.7 |
| Monazite | Brazil | 0.24 | 2.1×10−14 | 8.3 |
| Monazite | North Carolina, US | 1.64 | 5.9×10−14 | 3.6 |
| Fergusonite | - | 0.25 | <1×10−14 | <4 |
| Carnotite | - | 10 | <4×10−14 | <0.4 |
The most abundant thorium minerals are thorianite (ThO2), thorite (ThSiO4) and monazite, ((Th,Ca,Ce)PO4). Most thorium minerals contain uranium and vice versa; and they all have significant fraction of lanthanides. Rich deposits of thorium minerals are located in the United States (440,000 tonnes), Australia and India (~300,000 tonnes each) and Canada (~100,000 tonnes).
The abundance of actinium in the Earth's crust is only about 5×10−15%. Actinium is mostly present in uranium-containing, but also in other minerals, though in much smaller quantities. The content of actinium in most natural objects corresponds to the isotopic equilibrium of parent isotope 235U, and it is not affected by the weak Ac migration. Protactinium is more abundant (10−12%) in the Earth's crust than actinium. It was discovered in the uranium ore in 1913 by Fajans and Göhring. As actinium, the distribution of protactinium follows that of 235U.
The half-life of the longest-lived isotope of neptunium, 237Np, is negligible compared to the age of the Earth. Thus neptunium is present in nature in negligible amounts produced as intermediate decay products of other isotopes. Traces of plutonium in uranium minerals were first found in 1942, and the more systematic results on 239Pu are summarized in the table (no other plutonium isotopes could be detected in those samples). The upper limit of abundance of the longest-living isotope of plutonium, 244Pu, is 3×10−20%. Plutonium could not be detected in samples of lunar soil. Owing to its scarcity in nature, most plutonium is produced synthetically.
Negligible amounts of americium, curium, berkelium and californium are produced by neutron capture reactions and beta decay in very highly concentrated uranium-bearing deposits.
Read more about this topic: Actinide
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